《学会提问（原书第12版·中英文对照学习版）》［美］尼尔·布朗（Neil Browne） | PDF下载|ePub下载

赞　誉
前　言
第1章　正确提问的益处和方法 001
我们生活在嘈杂、混乱的世界 001
专家说得再动听，也不一定靠得住 004
有必要依靠自己的大脑 006
激发你的批判性思维 006
海绵式思维和淘金式思维 008
弱势批判性思维和强势批判性思维 012
勤于练习很重要 014
批判性思维和与人交往 016
批判性思维者拥有的主要价值观 018
让对话有效进行下去 020
营造友好的交流氛围 024
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 024
第2章　论题和结论是什么 030
论题的种类 032
寻找论题 034
寻找写作者或发言者的结论 036
找到结论的线索 038
思维体操 040
给个提示 042
第3章　理由是什么 048
开始质疑的过程 052
理由的提示词 056
让理由和结论一目了然 056
先有理由，后有结论 056
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 060
思维体操 064
给个提示 068
第4章　哪些词语意思不明确 072
让人捉摸不透的多义词 074
找准关键词 076
检查有没有歧义 78
判定歧义 080
上下文和歧义 084
歧义、定义和字典 084
澄清歧义不只是你的责任 088
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 088
思维体操 094
给个提示 096
第5章　价值观假设和描述性假设是什么 102
价值观冲突和价值观假设 108
从价值观到价值观假设 110
典型的价值观冲突 112
把立论者的背景作为寻找价值观假设的线索 112
把可能发生的后果作为寻找价值观假设的线索 114
寻找价值观假设的其他方法 116
了解其他人的价值倾向的价值 116
价值观与相对性 118
找出并评价描述性假设 118
描述性假设举例说明 120
常见的描述性假设 122
找到假设的线索 124
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 126
思维体操 134
给个提示 136
第6章　论证中有没有谬误 140
用提问的方法找出论证中的谬误 144
从评价假设出发 144
发现其他常见的论证谬误 150
警惕分散注意力的干扰 160
愚弄人的循环论证 162
论证谬误小结 164
扩展关于谬误的知识 166
思维体操 166
给个提示 170
第7章　证据的效力：个人经历、典型案例、当事人证言和专家陈述 174
事实还是见解 176
我们需要可靠的证据 178
证据的来源 180
以个人经历作为证据 182
以典型案例作为证据 184
以当事人证言作为证据 184
以专家意见作为证据 188
思维体操 192
给个提示 196
第8章　证据的效力：个人观察和调查研究 198
以个人观察作为证据 198
有偏差的调查和问卷 200
以研究报告作为证据 204
研究发现中存在的一般问题 206
从研究样本进行概括 214
从测量方法进行概括 216
专家观点什么时候最可信 220
科学研究和互联网 222
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 224
思维体操 230
给个提示 232
第9章　有没有替代原因 236
何时该寻找替代原因 238
替代原因的说服力 240
寻找替代原因 242
唯一的原因还是原因之一 242
将多种视角作为寻找替代原因的指导 244
混淆相关性和因果关系 246
混淆“在此之后”与“因此” 248
解释单个事件或行为 250
评价替代原因 252
替代原因与你的表达和交流 252
发掘潜在的原因 254
思维体操 256
给个提示 258
第10章　数据有没有欺骗性 264
不知来历和有偏差的数据 266
令人困惑的平均值 268
测量误差 272
错把一件事的结论用来证明另一件事 272
通过省略信息欺骗 274
在自己的写作中使用统计数字 278
思维体操 278
给个提示 280
第11章　有什么重要信息被省略了 284
找到省略信息的益处 286
不完整的论证在所难免 288
帮你识别省略信息的问题 290
我们需要知道确切的数字 290
负面视角的重要性 294
如果省略的信息还是找不到 296
像批判性思维者那样写作和发言 298
思维体操 304
给个提示 306
第12章　能得出哪些合理的结论 308
二分式思维：妨碍我们考虑多种可能性 310
灰度思维：两面还是多面 312
条件句的生产力 314
识别多个结论能解放思维 316
小结 316
思维体操 318
给个提示 320
第13章　干扰批判性思维的障碍 324
正确提问带给人的不快 324
思考过快 326
刻板印象 326
背叛我们的思维习惯 328
晕轮效应 328
信念固着 330
可得性启发法 332
答非所问 332
自我中心 334
一厢情愿：批判性思维最大的障碍 336
最后的话 340
译后记 344
CONTENTS
Preface xi
Chapter 1 The Benefit and Manner of Asking the Right Questions 001
The Noisy, Confused World We Live In 001
Experts Cannot Rescue Us, Despite What They Say 005
The Necessity of Relying on Our Mind 007
Critical Thinking to the Rescue 007
The Sponge and Panning for Gold: Alternative Thinking Styles 009
Weak-Sense and Strong-Sense Critical Thinking 013
The Importance of Practice 015
Critical Thinking and Other People 017
Primary Values of a Critical Thinker 019
Keeping the Conversation Going 021
Creating a Friendly Environment for Communication 025
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 025
Chapter 2 What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? 031
Kinds of Issues 033
Searching for the Issue 035
Searching for the Author’s or Speaker’s Conclusion 037
Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion 039
Practice Exercises 041
Sample Responses 043
Chapter 3 What Are the Reasons? 049
Initiating the Questioning Process 053
Words That Identify Reasons 057
Keeping the Reasons and Conclusions Straight 057
Reasons First, Then Conclusions 057
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 061
Practice Exercises 065
Sample Responses 069
Chapter 4 What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous? 073
The Confusing Flexibility of Words 075
Locating Key Terms and Phrases 077
Checking for Ambiguity 079
Determining Ambiguity 081
Context and Ambiguity 085
Ambiguity, Definitions, and the Dictionary 085
Limits of Your Responsibility to Clarify Ambiguity 089
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 089
Practice Exercises 095
Sample Responses 097
Chapter 5 What Are the Value and Descriptive Assumptions? 103
General Guide for Identifying Assumptions 107
Value Conflicts and Assumptions 109
From Values to Value Assumptions 111
Typical Value Conflicts 113
The Communicator’s Background as a Clue to Value Assumptions 113
Consequences as Clues to Value Assumptions 115
More Hints for Finding Value Assumptions 117
The Value of Knowing the Value Priorities of Others 117
Values and Relativism 119
Identifying and Evaluating Descriptive Assumptions 119
Illustrating Descriptive Assumptions 121
Common Descriptive Assumptions 123
Clues for Locating Assumptions 125
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 127
Practice Exercises 135
Sample Responses 137
Chapter 6 Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning? 141
A Questioning Approach to Finding Reasoning Fallacies 145
Evaluating Assumptions as a Starting Point 145
Discovering Other Common Reasoning Fallacies 151
Looking for Diversions 161
Sleight of Hand: Begging the Question 163
Summary of Reasoning Errors 165
Expanding Your Knowledge of Fallacies 167
Practice Exercises 167
Sample Responses 171
Chapter 7 The Worth of Personal Experience, Case Examples, Testimonials, and Statements of Authority as Evidence 175
Fact or Opinion? 177
The Need for Dependable Evidence 179
Sources of Evidence 181
Personal Experience as Evidence 183
Case Examples as Evidence 185
Testimonials as Evidence 185
Appeals to Authority as Evidence 189
Practice Exercises 193
Sample Responses 197
Chapter 8 How Good Is the Evidence: Personal Observation and Research Studies? 199
Personal Observation as Evidence 199
Biased Surveys and Questionnaires 201
Research Studies as Evidence 205
General Problems with Research Findings 207
Generalizing From the Research Sample 215
Generalizing From the Research Measures 217
When You Can Most Trust Expert Opinion 221
Research and the Internet 223
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 225
Practice Exercises 231
Sample Responses 233
Chapter 9 Are There Rival Causes? 237
When to Look for Rival Causes 239
The Pervasiveness of Rival Causes 241
Detecting Rival Causes 243
The Cause or a Cause 243
Multiple Perspectives as a Guide to Rival Causes 245
Confusing Causation with Association 247
Confusing “After This” with “Because of This” 249
Explaining Individual Events or Acts 251
Evaluating Rival Causes 253
Rival Causes and Your Own Communication 253
Exploring Potential Causes 255
Practice Exercises 257
Sample Responses 259
Chapter 10 Are Any Statistics Deceptive? 265
Unknowable and Biased Statistics 267
Confusing Averages 269
Measurement Errors 273
Concluding One Thing, Proving Another 273
Deceiving by Omitting Information 275
Using Statistics in Your Writing 279
Practice Exercises 279
Sample Responses 281
Chapter 11 What Significant Information Is Omitted? 285
The Benefits of Detecting Omitted Information 287
The Certainty of Incomplete Reasoning 289
Questions That Identify Omitted Information 291
But We Need to Know the Numbers 291
The Importance of the Negative View 295
Omitted Information That Remains Missing 297
Writing and Speaking as Critical Thinkers 299
Practice Exercises 305
Sample Responses 307
Chapter 12 What Reasonable Conclusions Are Possible? 309
Dichotomous Thinking: Impediment to Considering Multiple Conclusions 311
Grey Thinking: Two Sides or Many? 313
Productivity of If-Clauses 315
The Liberating Effect of Recognizing Alternative Conclusions 317
Summary 317
Practice Exercises 319
Sample Responses 321
Chapter 13 Speed Bumps Interfering with Your Critical Thinking 325
The Discomfort of Asking the Right Questions 325
Thinking Too Quickly 327
Stereotypes 327
Mental Habits That Betray Us 329
Halo Effect 329
Belief Perseverance 331
Availability Heuristic 333
Answering the Wrong Question 333
Egocentrism 335
Wishful Thinking: Perhaps the Biggest Single Speed Bump on the Road to Critical Thinking 337
Final Words 339
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